{ "name": "Brightening actives by pigment type", "description": "Eight over-the-counter brightening actives graded against the four distinct things people call dark spots. Every grade names the studies it rests on. Concentrations and citations are read from the ingredient dossiers rather than retyped.", "license": "CC BY 4.0", "license_url": "https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "source_page": "https://verifiedbeautydata.com/brightening/", "publisher": "Verified Beauty Data", "generated": "2026-08-24", "row_count": 32, "grade_scale": { "A": "Meta-analysis, systematic review, or randomised trial in this specific condition", "B": "Controlled clinical trial in this condition, or a strong trial in an adjacent one", "C": "Small or open-label human data, or mechanism plus supporting human evidence", "D": "In vitro or mechanism only", "none": "No evidence located in our corpus for this pairing" }, "pigment_types": [ { "id": "melasma", "label": "Melasma", "short": "Melasma", "tell": "Symmetric patches across cheeks, forehead or upper lip. Hormonal — pregnancy, the pill. Darkens with sun and with heat.", "caution": "Aggressive acids, strong peels and heat make melasma worse. It is a chronic, relapsing condition, not a spot that clears once." }, { "id": "pih", "label": "Post-inflammatory hyperpigmentation", "short": "Brown marks", "tell": "A flat BROWN mark where a spot, cut or rash used to be. Commoner and longer-lasting in deeper skin tones.", "caution": "It fades on its own eventually; actives speed that up. Without daily SPF it re-darkens faster than any active fades it." }, { "id": "pie", "label": "Post-inflammatory erythema", "short": "Red marks", "tell": "A flat RED or pink mark where a spot used to be. Press it — if it blanches white, it is PIE.", "caution": "PIE is dilated capillaries, not melanin. Brightening actives target pigment, so most of them do nothing here. This is the most common wasted purchase in the category." }, { "id": "lentigines", "label": "Sun spots and age spots", "short": "Sun spots", "tell": "Discrete marks with defined edges on sun-exposed skin — face, hands, chest. Accumulates with cumulative UV and age.", "caution": "The slowest of the four. Six months is a realistic horizon, not six weeks. Hydroquinone, the reference treatment, is prescription-only in the US." } ], "not_covered": [ { "name": "Hydroquinone", "why": "Prescription-only in the United States since 23 September 2020, when the CARES Act removed it from the over-the-counter monograph. It remains the reference treatment every active above is measured against, which is most of the reason this page needs to exist." }, { "name": "Cysteamine", "why": "It has real melasma evidence and is sold over the counter, but we have not built its dossier yet — so it is left ungraded rather than graded from memory." } ], "columns": [ "active", "active_id", "inci_name", "pigment_type", "pigment_type_id", "evidence_grade", "evidence_basis", "references", "working_pct", "cheapest_verified_brand", "cheapest_verified_product", "disclosed_pct", "price_per_g_active_usd", "n_disclosed_products" ], "rows": [ { "active": "Tranexamic Acid", "active_id": "tranexamic-acid", "inci_name": "TRANEXAMIC ACID", "pigment_type": "Melasma", "pigment_type_id": "melasma", "evidence_grade": "A", "evidence_basis": "meta-analysis plus RCT against hydroquinone", "references": "PMID:28374042 PMID:38918942 PMID:37026889 PMID:33849384", "working_pct": "2-5%", "cheapest_verified_brand": "FARMACY", "cheapest_verified_product": "Brighten Up 3% TXA Dark Spot Toner - 4.0 oz", "disclosed_pct": 3, "price_per_g_active_usd": 9.5806, "n_disclosed_products": 2 }, { "active": "Tranexamic Acid", "active_id": "tranexamic-acid", "inci_name": "TRANEXAMIC ACID", "pigment_type": "Post-inflammatory hyperpigmentation", "pigment_type_id": "pih", "evidence_grade": "B", "evidence_basis": "controlled clinical", "references": "PMID:39350932 PMID:38816976", "working_pct": "2-5%", "cheapest_verified_brand": "FARMACY", "cheapest_verified_product": "Brighten Up 3% TXA Dark Spot Toner - 4.0 oz", "disclosed_pct": 3, "price_per_g_active_usd": 9.5806, "n_disclosed_products": 2 }, { "active": "Tranexamic Acid", "active_id": "tranexamic-acid", "inci_name": "TRANEXAMIC ACID", "pigment_type": "Post-inflammatory erythema", "pigment_type_id": "pie", "evidence_grade": "B", "evidence_basis": "mechanism plus clinical, vascular endpoint", "references": "PMID:31074159 PMID:32308543 PMID:39350932", "working_pct": "2-5%", "cheapest_verified_brand": "FARMACY", "cheapest_verified_product": "Brighten Up 3% TXA Dark Spot Toner - 4.0 oz", "disclosed_pct": 3, "price_per_g_active_usd": 9.5806, "n_disclosed_products": 2 }, { "active": "Tranexamic Acid", "active_id": "tranexamic-acid", "inci_name": "TRANEXAMIC ACID", "pigment_type": "Sun spots and age spots", "pigment_type_id": "lentigines", "evidence_grade": "C", "evidence_basis": "UV-induced pigmentation model", "references": "PMID:10093913", "working_pct": "2-5%", "cheapest_verified_brand": "FARMACY", "cheapest_verified_product": "Brighten Up 3% TXA Dark Spot Toner - 4.0 oz", "disclosed_pct": 3, "price_per_g_active_usd": 9.5806, "n_disclosed_products": 2 }, { "active": "Azelaic Acid", "active_id": "azelaic-acid", "inci_name": "AZELAIC ACID", "pigment_type": "Melasma", "pigment_type_id": "melasma", "evidence_grade": "A", "evidence_basis": "randomised trials against hydroquinone plus systematic review", "references": "PMID:1816137 PMID:2528260 PMID:37457606", "working_pct": "10-20%", "cheapest_verified_brand": "Good Molecules", "cheapest_verified_product": "10% Azelaic Acid Treatment", "disclosed_pct": 10, "price_per_g_active_usd": 4.0577, "n_disclosed_products": 3 }, { "active": "Azelaic Acid", "active_id": "azelaic-acid", "inci_name": "AZELAIC ACID", "pigment_type": "Post-inflammatory hyperpigmentation", "pigment_type_id": "pih", "evidence_grade": "A", "evidence_basis": "vehicle-controlled trial in post-inflammatory hyperpigmentation", "references": "PMID:21637899 PMID:16281587", "working_pct": "10-20%", "cheapest_verified_brand": "Good Molecules", "cheapest_verified_product": "10% Azelaic Acid Treatment", "disclosed_pct": 10, "price_per_g_active_usd": 4.0577, "n_disclosed_products": 3 }, { "active": "Azelaic Acid", "active_id": "azelaic-acid", "inci_name": "AZELAIC ACID", "pigment_type": "Post-inflammatory erythema", "pigment_type_id": "pie", "evidence_grade": "B", "evidence_basis": "rosacea trials with an erythema endpoint", "references": "PMID:15492198 PMID:26244354", "working_pct": "10-20%", "cheapest_verified_brand": "Good Molecules", "cheapest_verified_product": "10% Azelaic Acid Treatment", "disclosed_pct": 10, "price_per_g_active_usd": 4.0577, "n_disclosed_products": 3 }, { "active": "Azelaic Acid", "active_id": "azelaic-acid", "inci_name": "AZELAIC ACID", "pigment_type": "Sun spots and age spots", "pigment_type_id": "lentigines", "evidence_grade": "C", "evidence_basis": "depigmenting evaluation", "references": "PMID:4031538", "working_pct": "10-20%", "cheapest_verified_brand": "Good Molecules", "cheapest_verified_product": "10% Azelaic Acid Treatment", "disclosed_pct": 10, "price_per_g_active_usd": 4.0577, "n_disclosed_products": 3 }, { "active": "Niacinamide (Vitamin B3)", "active_id": "niacinamide", "inci_name": "NIACINAMIDE", "pigment_type": "Melasma", "pigment_type_id": "melasma", "evidence_grade": "C", "evidence_basis": "adjunct within combination trials", "references": "PMID:12100180", "working_pct": "2–5%", "cheapest_verified_brand": "The Ordinary", "cheapest_verified_product": "Niacinamide 10% + Zinc 1% Serum for Oily Skin - 1.0 oz", "disclosed_pct": 10, "price_per_g_active_usd": 2.0288, "n_disclosed_products": 12 }, { "active": "Niacinamide (Vitamin B3)", "active_id": "niacinamide", "inci_name": "NIACINAMIDE", "pigment_type": "Post-inflammatory hyperpigmentation", "pigment_type_id": "pih", "evidence_grade": "B", "evidence_basis": "clinical, pigmentation endpoint", "references": "PMID:12100180 PMID:18492135", "working_pct": "2–5%", "cheapest_verified_brand": "The Ordinary", "cheapest_verified_product": "Niacinamide 10% + Zinc 1% Serum for Oily Skin - 1.0 oz", "disclosed_pct": 10, "price_per_g_active_usd": 2.0288, "n_disclosed_products": 12 }, { "active": "Niacinamide (Vitamin B3)", "active_id": "niacinamide", "inci_name": "NIACINAMIDE", "pigment_type": "Post-inflammatory erythema", "pigment_type_id": "pie", "evidence_grade": "C", "evidence_basis": "clinical, red-blotchiness endpoint", "references": "PMID:18492135", "working_pct": "2–5%", "cheapest_verified_brand": "The Ordinary", "cheapest_verified_product": "Niacinamide 10% + Zinc 1% Serum for Oily Skin - 1.0 oz", "disclosed_pct": 10, "price_per_g_active_usd": 2.0288, "n_disclosed_products": 12 }, { "active": "Niacinamide (Vitamin B3)", "active_id": "niacinamide", "inci_name": "NIACINAMIDE", "pigment_type": "Sun spots and age spots", "pigment_type_id": "lentigines", "evidence_grade": "B", "evidence_basis": "clinical, hyperpigmentation endpoint", "references": "PMID:16029679 PMID:18492135", "working_pct": "2–5%", "cheapest_verified_brand": "The Ordinary", "cheapest_verified_product": "Niacinamide 10% + Zinc 1% Serum for Oily Skin - 1.0 oz", "disclosed_pct": 10, "price_per_g_active_usd": 2.0288, "n_disclosed_products": 12 }, { "active": "Retinol (Vitamin A)", "active_id": "retinol", "inci_name": "RETINOL", "pigment_type": "Melasma", "pigment_type_id": "melasma", "evidence_grade": "C", "evidence_basis": "photoaging trials, extrapolated", "references": "PMID:7544967", "working_pct": "0.1-1%", "cheapest_verified_brand": "The Ordinary", "cheapest_verified_product": "Retinol 0.5% in Squalane, Intermediate Retinol Serum", "disclosed_pct": 0.5, "price_per_g_active_usd": 62.8941, "n_disclosed_products": 7 }, { "active": "Retinol (Vitamin A)", "active_id": "retinol", "inci_name": "RETINOL", "pigment_type": "Post-inflammatory hyperpigmentation", "pigment_type_id": "pih", "evidence_grade": "C", "evidence_basis": "turnover mechanism, extrapolated from photoaging trials", "references": "PMID:17515510 PMID:20442078", "working_pct": "0.1-1%", "cheapest_verified_brand": "The Ordinary", "cheapest_verified_product": "Retinol 0.5% in Squalane, Intermediate Retinol Serum", "disclosed_pct": 0.5, "price_per_g_active_usd": 62.8941, "n_disclosed_products": 7 }, { "active": "Retinol (Vitamin A)", "active_id": "retinol", "inci_name": "RETINOL", "pigment_type": "Post-inflammatory erythema", "pigment_type_id": "pie", "evidence_grade": "none", "evidence_basis": null, "references": "", "working_pct": "0.1-1%", "cheapest_verified_brand": "The Ordinary", "cheapest_verified_product": "Retinol 0.5% in Squalane, Intermediate Retinol Serum", "disclosed_pct": 0.5, "price_per_g_active_usd": 62.8941, "n_disclosed_products": 7 }, { "active": "Retinol (Vitamin A)", "active_id": "retinol", "inci_name": "RETINOL", "pigment_type": "Sun spots and age spots", "pigment_type_id": "lentigines", "evidence_grade": "A", "evidence_basis": "randomised trials in photoaged skin", "references": "PMID:3771853 PMID:17515510 PMID:38564380 PMID:20442078", "working_pct": "0.1-1%", "cheapest_verified_brand": "The Ordinary", "cheapest_verified_product": "Retinol 0.5% in Squalane, Intermediate Retinol Serum", "disclosed_pct": 0.5, "price_per_g_active_usd": 62.8941, "n_disclosed_products": 7 }, { "active": "Kojic Acid", "active_id": "kojic-acid", "inci_name": "KOJIC ACID", "pigment_type": "Melasma", "pigment_type_id": "melasma", "evidence_grade": "B", "evidence_basis": "randomised comparative trial in melasma", "references": "PMID:23918998 PMID:34962047", "working_pct": "1-2%", "cheapest_verified_brand": null, "cheapest_verified_product": null, "disclosed_pct": null, "price_per_g_active_usd": null, "n_disclosed_products": 0 }, { "active": "Kojic Acid", "active_id": "kojic-acid", "inci_name": "KOJIC ACID", "pigment_type": "Post-inflammatory hyperpigmentation", "pigment_type_id": "pih", "evidence_grade": "C", "evidence_basis": "mechanism plus combination data", "references": "PMID:34962047", "working_pct": "1-2%", "cheapest_verified_brand": null, "cheapest_verified_product": null, "disclosed_pct": null, "price_per_g_active_usd": null, "n_disclosed_products": 0 }, { "active": "Kojic Acid", "active_id": "kojic-acid", "inci_name": "KOJIC ACID", "pigment_type": "Post-inflammatory erythema", "pigment_type_id": "pie", "evidence_grade": "none", "evidence_basis": null, "references": "", "working_pct": "1-2%", "cheapest_verified_brand": null, "cheapest_verified_product": null, "disclosed_pct": null, "price_per_g_active_usd": null, "n_disclosed_products": 0 }, { "active": "Kojic Acid", "active_id": "kojic-acid", "inci_name": "KOJIC ACID", "pigment_type": "Sun spots and age spots", "pigment_type_id": "lentigines", "evidence_grade": "C", "evidence_basis": "tyrosinase inhibition plus combination data", "references": "PMID:23918998", "working_pct": "1-2%", "cheapest_verified_brand": null, "cheapest_verified_product": null, "disclosed_pct": null, "price_per_g_active_usd": null, "n_disclosed_products": 0 }, { "active": "Alpha-Arbutin", "active_id": "alpha-arbutin", "inci_name": "ALPHA-ARBUTIN", "pigment_type": "Melasma", "pigment_type_id": "melasma", "evidence_grade": "C", "evidence_basis": "comparative formulation studies", "references": "PMID:39943675 PMID:40091954", "working_pct": "1–2%", "cheapest_verified_brand": "The Ordinary", "cheapest_verified_product": "Alpha Arbutin 2% + Hyaluronic Acid for Hyperpigmentation", "disclosed_pct": 2, "price_per_g_active_usd": 19.4431, "n_disclosed_products": 2 }, { "active": "Alpha-Arbutin", "active_id": "alpha-arbutin", "inci_name": "ALPHA-ARBUTIN", "pigment_type": "Post-inflammatory hyperpigmentation", "pigment_type_id": "pih", "evidence_grade": "C", "evidence_basis": "in vitro plus formulation studies", "references": "PMID:15056856 PMID:39943675", "working_pct": "1–2%", "cheapest_verified_brand": "The Ordinary", "cheapest_verified_product": "Alpha Arbutin 2% + Hyaluronic Acid for Hyperpigmentation", "disclosed_pct": 2, "price_per_g_active_usd": 19.4431, "n_disclosed_products": 2 }, { "active": "Alpha-Arbutin", "active_id": "alpha-arbutin", "inci_name": "ALPHA-ARBUTIN", "pigment_type": "Post-inflammatory erythema", "pigment_type_id": "pie", "evidence_grade": "none", "evidence_basis": null, "references": "", "working_pct": "1–2%", "cheapest_verified_brand": "The Ordinary", "cheapest_verified_product": "Alpha Arbutin 2% + Hyaluronic Acid for Hyperpigmentation", "disclosed_pct": 2, "price_per_g_active_usd": 19.4431, "n_disclosed_products": 2 }, { "active": "Alpha-Arbutin", "active_id": "alpha-arbutin", "inci_name": "ALPHA-ARBUTIN", "pigment_type": "Sun spots and age spots", "pigment_type_id": "lentigines", "evidence_grade": "C", "evidence_basis": "in vitro plus comparative", "references": "PMID:8632348 PMID:40091954", "working_pct": "1–2%", "cheapest_verified_brand": "The Ordinary", "cheapest_verified_product": "Alpha Arbutin 2% + Hyaluronic Acid for Hyperpigmentation", "disclosed_pct": 2, "price_per_g_active_usd": 19.4431, "n_disclosed_products": 2 }, { "active": "L-Ascorbic Acid (Vitamin C)", "active_id": "l-ascorbic-acid", "inci_name": "ASCORBIC ACID", "pigment_type": "Melasma", "pigment_type_id": "melasma", "evidence_grade": "C", "evidence_basis": "mechanism plus adjunct use", "references": "PMID:8543691", "working_pct": "8-20%", "cheapest_verified_brand": "The Ordinary", "cheapest_verified_product": "Vitamin C Suspension 23% + HA Spheres 2% Serum with Pure L-Ascorbic Acid", "disclosed_pct": 23, "price_per_g_active_usd": 1.1908, "n_disclosed_products": 25 }, { "active": "L-Ascorbic Acid (Vitamin C)", "active_id": "l-ascorbic-acid", "inci_name": "ASCORBIC ACID", "pigment_type": "Post-inflammatory hyperpigmentation", "pigment_type_id": "pih", "evidence_grade": "C", "evidence_basis": "mechanism plus clinical use", "references": "PMID:8543691 PMID:23741676", "working_pct": "8-20%", "cheapest_verified_brand": "The Ordinary", "cheapest_verified_product": "Vitamin C Suspension 23% + HA Spheres 2% Serum with Pure L-Ascorbic Acid", "disclosed_pct": 23, "price_per_g_active_usd": 1.1908, "n_disclosed_products": 25 }, { "active": "L-Ascorbic Acid (Vitamin C)", "active_id": "l-ascorbic-acid", "inci_name": "ASCORBIC ACID", "pigment_type": "Post-inflammatory erythema", "pigment_type_id": "pie", "evidence_grade": "none", "evidence_basis": null, "references": "", "working_pct": "8-20%", "cheapest_verified_brand": "The Ordinary", "cheapest_verified_product": "Vitamin C Suspension 23% + HA Spheres 2% Serum with Pure L-Ascorbic Acid", "disclosed_pct": 23, "price_per_g_active_usd": 1.1908, "n_disclosed_products": 25 }, { "active": "L-Ascorbic Acid (Vitamin C)", "active_id": "l-ascorbic-acid", "inci_name": "ASCORBIC ACID", "pigment_type": "Sun spots and age spots", "pigment_type_id": "lentigines", "evidence_grade": "B", "evidence_basis": "photoprotection trials", "references": "PMID:12789176 PMID:1390169 PMID:29104718", "working_pct": "8-20%", "cheapest_verified_brand": "The Ordinary", "cheapest_verified_product": "Vitamin C Suspension 23% + HA Spheres 2% Serum with Pure L-Ascorbic Acid", "disclosed_pct": 23, "price_per_g_active_usd": 1.1908, "n_disclosed_products": 25 }, { "active": "Licorice Root (Glycyrrhiza Glabra)", "active_id": "licorice-root", "inci_name": "GLYCYRRHIZA GLABRA (LICORICE) ROOT EXTRACT", "pigment_type": "Melasma", "pigment_type_id": "melasma", "evidence_grade": "C", "evidence_basis": "tyrosinase inhibition plus small clinical", "references": "PMID:27288962 PMID:40350048", "working_pct": "No standardized cosmetic concentration — and the marker compound (glabridin or licochalcone A) and species matter far more than a generic 'licorice extract' percentage", "cheapest_verified_brand": null, "cheapest_verified_product": null, "disclosed_pct": null, "price_per_g_active_usd": null, "n_disclosed_products": 0 }, { "active": "Licorice Root (Glycyrrhiza Glabra)", "active_id": "licorice-root", "inci_name": "GLYCYRRHIZA GLABRA (LICORICE) ROOT EXTRACT", "pigment_type": "Post-inflammatory hyperpigmentation", "pigment_type_id": "pih", "evidence_grade": "C", "evidence_basis": "mechanism", "references": "PMID:23850540", "working_pct": "No standardized cosmetic concentration — and the marker compound (glabridin or licochalcone A) and species matter far more than a generic 'licorice extract' percentage", "cheapest_verified_brand": null, "cheapest_verified_product": null, "disclosed_pct": null, "price_per_g_active_usd": null, "n_disclosed_products": 0 }, { "active": "Licorice Root (Glycyrrhiza Glabra)", "active_id": "licorice-root", "inci_name": "GLYCYRRHIZA GLABRA (LICORICE) ROOT EXTRACT", "pigment_type": "Post-inflammatory erythema", "pigment_type_id": "pie", "evidence_grade": "C", "evidence_basis": "clinical, anti-inflammatory endpoint", "references": "PMID:16552540 PMID:26293170", "working_pct": "No standardized cosmetic concentration — and the marker compound (glabridin or licochalcone A) and species matter far more than a generic 'licorice extract' percentage", "cheapest_verified_brand": null, "cheapest_verified_product": null, "disclosed_pct": null, "price_per_g_active_usd": null, "n_disclosed_products": 0 }, { "active": "Licorice Root (Glycyrrhiza Glabra)", "active_id": "licorice-root", "inci_name": "GLYCYRRHIZA GLABRA (LICORICE) ROOT EXTRACT", "pigment_type": "Sun spots and age spots", "pigment_type_id": "lentigines", "evidence_grade": "D", "evidence_basis": "in vitro only", "references": "PMID:34563052", "working_pct": "No standardized cosmetic concentration — and the marker compound (glabridin or licochalcone A) and species matter far more than a generic 'licorice extract' percentage", "cheapest_verified_brand": null, "cheapest_verified_product": null, "disclosed_pct": null, "price_per_g_active_usd": null, "n_disclosed_products": 0 } ] }